Print Culture Across the Gilded Age and the 21st Century

During the American Gilded Age, “developments in technology…transformed virtually every aspect of life” (22). Inventions such as the radio, telegraph, and car were just a few of the technologies that emerged, changing American culture forever. Among the groundbreaking technologies of the Gilded Age were advances in print and publishing, including the automated printing press and the linotype machine. The effects of these advances on print culture were great, as the demand for printed materials grew with the new ease of circulation and production of literary material (23). Today in the 21^st century, I would argue that our nation is going through another period of great technological development that is greatly impacting Americans and what we have known to be the American way of life. In modern times, print culture is again changing dramatically, both in positive and negative ways, due to the expanse of new technologies in print. With the emergence of the e-book, IPad, and Kindle, people now have access to literature like never before and traditional methods of publishing are being threatened. Newspapers and magazines thrived in the Gilded Age, but are suffering in the 21^st century where information circulates faster and more efficiently through the Internet than through print. Newspaper, magazine, and book publishers are now adapting to this new change in print culture by making their stories and works available on the Internet and through purchase on electronic reading devices. In the past, technology has always impacted print culture for the better. For the first time in American history, we have reached a point where our technological advances have become so great that print culture is beginning to see its negative impacts. However, with these new technologies of the 21^st century, like in the Gilded Age, authors are becoming more widely read with the increase of distribution. While automotive technologies increased the breadth of distribution in the Gilded Age, electronic reading devices and the Internet have now made it possible for people to read practically anything and any author of their choosing with the push of a button. Consequentially, authors are given more opportunities for success and recognition and readers have more reading material available to them. In both the Gilded Age and in the 21^st Century, print culture has been dramatically impacted by new technologies and has expanded its audience through greater means of circulation, sustaining the notion that America is a nation of readers.  

Lincoln’s and Davis’ Inaugural Addresses from the Prospective of a Freed African American Slave (Option 2)

My name is Sarah Williams. I am a former African American slave currently living in Pennsylvania. I came to my freedom by escaping from a dreadful cotton plantation in Montgomery, Alabama through means of the Underground Railroad. Since living here in the Union, I have learned to read and write through the kindness of friends and have come to find reading as my most enjoyable pastime. I have recently read Jefferson Davis’ Inaugural Address and President Lincoln’s (may he rest in peace) Second Inaugural Address and feel it necessary to write down my reflections in my personal journal. I cannot but help be astounded at the great ideas expressed in each, though I find Davis’ ideas quite preposterous. One similarity that I find very intriguing, as I am a devout Christian woman myself, is that both leaders speak to God’s will, but in two very different lights. Jefferson Davis so boldly states in his address that “we are doubly justified by the absence of wrong on our part” (1360), and justifies this idea by stating “Sanctified by justice and sustained by a virtuous people, let me reverently invoke the God of our fathers to guide and protect us in our efforts to perpetuate the principles which by HIS blessing they were able to vindicate, establish, and transmit to their prosperity” (1362). I find this statement absolutely appalling, as both a Christian woman and as a former slave. How these white men in the south can believe God to condone such injustice and cruelty to His people is beyond me. Jefferson suggests that God approves of the succession of the South and of their continuance of the use of slavery to reap economic profit. This is a most strange viewpoint to me and one that I will never be able to understand. There is still much anger in my heart, and yet I pray to God to change the hearts of these callus men. I recently read Fredrick Douglass’ Narrative at the suggestion of a friend, and I must say that from my own experience, I heartily agree with his statement that the most Christian slave owners were also the worst.

            President Lincoln also speaks of God and His role in the Great War, and his wise words have most certainly inspired me and have opened my heart to being a better Christian. Lincoln states in his address regarding the religion of the North and South: “Both read the same Bible, and pray to the same God; and each invokes His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God’s assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men’s faces; but let us judge not that we be not judged” (1375). As I have stated before, the very idea that both members of the Union and Confederacy were praying to the same God in hopes of destroying the other is so astounding to me and though I agree with President Lincoln in wondering how the Confederacy felt no guilt of conscience in asking God to support so un-Christian a cause, I must not judge for God will judge me in return. I hear these words of a wise and noble man such as Lincoln, and I inspire to be such a Christian, but they leave me bitter. How can God expect me not to judge the men who are responsible for so much death, destruction, and cruelty? Who were responsible for so much suffering not only on my part, but also on part of all my beloved brothers and sisters? Lincoln speaks the word of the Lord in his address and it reverberates strong in my heart and the hearts of others, but it is hard to accept for those of us that have experienced their wicked deeds first hand. Yet, Lincoln proclaims that God’s will be done and that we will fight until God’s wrath has thoroughly punished the Confederacy through the destruction of the war. This idea is frightening and, though I hate to say it, encouraging. Is God punishing the Confederacy for their wickedness through this war? If so God hasn’t turned his back on the slaves in the South, as so many of them have proclaimed. I, too, nearly lost my faith until very soon before my escape. Perhaps these words will renew faith in enslaved and former enslaved African Americans who have lost all hope and faith in the Lord. May He bless and keep them.

Imagery in "The Slave Mother"

 Image found at: http://leftbehind.co.za/home/mother-child-cp-w2942286/

In Frances E. W. Harper’s poem “The Slave Mother,” the first thing I noticed was the strength of the imagery Harper chose and the emotional effects these images have on the reader. Sentimentalism was a popular aspect of literature during this time period and Harper uses the strength and appeal of emotion to gain sympathy from readers and to change readers’ ideas of slavery through drawing similarities between them and the slave mother. In the second and third quatrains of her poem, Harper illustrates to the reader the injustice and agonies of slavery through images of subservience and turmoil. In lines 5 and 6, the slave mother is physically described as being in a submissive position, with “hands so sadly clasped” and her head “bowed” and “feeble” (1231). Harper also depicts the slave mother’s pain as a “storm of agony” (line 12, 1231), which intensifies the slave mother’s sadness and makes her emotion relatable to readers. Harper also depicts the separation of mother and child thoroughly in her poem and appeals to sentimentality in order to gain sympathy from readers. In quatrain 9, Harper states: “They tear him from her circling arms,/ Her last and fond embrace./ Oh! never more may her sad eyes/ Gaze on his mournful face” (1232). Images of tearing and circling arms imply violence towards children and their vulnerability after being taken from the protective arms of their mothers. This imagery appeals to the values associated with motherhood and draws out women readers’ protective inclinations towards children.

         The imagery found in quatrains 7 and 8 is particularly vivid and most successfully illustrates the mother/child relationship and the intensity of emotion that derives from it. Harper describes the child’s love as “a joyous light” and as a “fountain gushing ever new,/ Amid life’s desert wild” (lines 25 and 27, 1231). Describing the boy’s love as an ever-following fountain in the desert evokes emotions of desperation, necessity, and those of greatest joy. This is an incredibly powerful image and through the understanding of emotion, white women readers can imagine themselves in the position of the slave mother and come to feel a sense of injustice and sorrow for the mother that must endure separation from her child.

While all of Harper’s imagery is intricate and well employed, the imagery found in the last couplet of the poem most captured my attention and speaks of the strength of sentimentality utilized by Harper: “She is a mother, and her heart/ Is breaking in despair” (1232). Although this image may seem generic, it is, arguably, the most important image of the poem. Even though we, the reader, already know that the woman described is a mother, Harper illiterates this point again and uses a universal image to appeal to the idea of equality and that no matter the race, age, social standing, etc. of women, they all share the fundamental similarity of motherhood. Harper uses this last powerful couplet to make women readers realize this unity and sense of universalism and to, consequentially, persuade them to support abolition and freedom for all.

Gender Inequalities in Jacobs' "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl"

In Harriet Jacobs’ slave narrative “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,” she recounts her life as a slave to Dr. Flint (the pseudonym for Dr. James Norcom) and her life in hiding after escaping the Flint’s home in the middle of the night. Jacobs not only reflects in her narrative that she was oppressed due to her social class and race, but she also conveys the impact of gender inequalities and their significant addition to her hardships. At this time in the United States, being an African American woman slave was the lowest rung of the social ladder and in effect, as Jacobs illustrates in her narrative, left them more vulnerable to abuse and sexual harassment by their owners. When Jacobs discovers that her second child is to be a baby girl, she expresses her heightened concern for her daughter, as “slavery is terrible for men; but…is far more terrible for women” (780). When reading Jacobs’ story, it was apparent to me that she would have been able to make different choices for her and for her children if she had not been subject to gender inequalities. Jacobs’ ultimately decides to let her first lover go due to the concern that their children would be slaves under law, as children “follow the condition of the mother” (775), and that, as a free African American man, her husband would not be able to protect her from her master. Perhaps Jacobs’ would have chosen differently if these inequalities were not law. Her gender also restricted her choices because her opportunities to improve her standard of livelihood as a single woman after escape were next to none compared to that of a man. Perhaps she wouldn’t have hidden for as long, or would have attempted to find employment had she been a man. The power struggles between the sexes are most apparent between her and her master, Dr. Flint. Gender inequalities heighten the animosity behind the power struggles between the two and are most apparent when they argue over her want to be married to a free African American man. When she talks back to Dr. Flint, he exclaims “By heavens, girl, you forget yourself too far!” (774). This affirms his status not only as her owner, but also as a superior man. Unfortunately, the balance of power never changes throughout the story because even though she runs away, his power over her remains as she must continue to hide from him. Jacobs’ resists her roles in society in terms of race and social class, but adheres to her gender role as a woman.

"That noble race and brave..."

After reading Lydia Sigourney’s poem “Indian Names” and William Apess’ “An Indian’s Looking-Glass for the White Man,” I noticed that both works centralize on the idea of the strength and prevalence of the Native American people in the wake of destruction and oppression on behalf of white Americans. Though the Native American people’s numbers were shrinking rapidly during this time due to disease, violence, and suffering, both Sigourney and Apess speak of a prevailing Native American presence despite these hardships. In Sigourney’s “Indian Names,” she expresses that though white settlers believe that they have overridden Native American culture with their own, it really isn’t the case, as Native American names for much of the nation’s mountains and rivers are still used. This can be interpreted as a message to white American settlers saying that though they believe themselves to be a dominant race of great strength to have built America, they did not build it alone. America was already a nation when the settlers arrived, just a very different one. The Native Americans were vitally important to the success of the colonists and their legacy remains reflected in the culture and natural monuments of America.

Apess’ also speaks of the strength and prevalence of his people in “An Indian’s Looking-Glass for the White Man.” Apess argues that Native Americans are also the children of God and that they are “men of talents” (641). He also asserts the prevalence and equality of his people with the white man by stating that though white settlers look down upon the American Indians because of their skin color, many are still choosing to select Native Americans as husbands and wives: “the whites have taken the liberty to choose my brethren, the Indians, hundreds and thousands of them, as partners in life” (644). The inclusion of this important fact in Apess’ address illustrates that Native Americans will continue to be a presence in America, despite white Americans’ efforts to extinguish them, and that white settlers recognize their value, as they are choosing to include them in their lineage.

The voices and statements made in these two selections remind me of Paula Gunn Allen’s poem “Pocahontas to Her English Husband, John Rolfe.” Allen also promotes the idea that the Native American’s were vital to the white settlers survival in America and that they are a people of great wisdom and strength, though they have endured great hardship on part of white colonists. This is especially reflected in the last stanza of Allen’s poem: “-and you,/ deceiver, whiteman, father of my son,/ survived, reaping wealth greater/ than any you had ever dreamed/ from what I taught you/ and from the wasting of my bones” (123).

Symbolism in "The Tenth of January"

Image from: garygarywongwong.blogspot.com

While reading Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’ story “The Tenth of January,” I noticed right of the bat the significance of the color red.  Within the first couple of pages, Phelps describes Asenath’s cape as crimson multiple times, and continues to associate the color red with a multitude of different things throughout the story, from the factory at which the girls work to pretty girls’ cheeks and Del’s hair feather. In Gardner’s Writing About Literature, she states “the more prominent an image in a story, the more likely it is meant to be read symbolically” (59). While I recognized red as an important symbol in the story, I had difficulty discerning what exactly it symbolized, as it was used to describe a vast array of things that could be interpreted as either good or bad. After contemplating Phelps’ purpose for using red as an important symbol, I think that red is used to symbolize Asenath’s desires. Asenath’s red cape is an important aspect of the story, and it is only when she is at peace with herself and her life does she wear it. When she discovers that the young man she loves didn’t stay for dinner, she throws the cape into a drawer and dons her gray one instead. This interpretation of the red symbol is also upheld in its associations with Del and in the fire that destroys the Pemberton Mill. When Asenath discovers her fiancée gazing lovingly at Del by the river, Del’s hair is adorned with a red feather, symbolizing Asenath’s desire to be a pretty girl and to be the subject of her fiancée’s love. When Del expresses her desire to marry to Asenath, she states “I shall have a red carpet and some curtains; my husband will buy me a piano” (3). Asenath voices her desire for this as well and throughout the story is further troubled by her want of a husband to keep her company, despite her disfigurement. During the story’s climax, when the fire is destroying the factory and the workers inside, Asenath welcomes the flames as she wishes for a release from her suffering. Color versus no color is utilized by Phelps throughout the story and helps to further exaggerate Asenth’s emotions and to further alienate her from the other girls she associates with. 

Washington Irving's "The Wife": Anti-feminist Literature or a Declaration of Patriotism? (Journal #3)

http://nadhnada.wordpress.com/2010/11/20/

Let us dance in the sun, wearing wild flowers in our hair...  ~Susan Polis Shutz

http://www.quotegarden.com/light.html 

After reading Washington Irving’s short story “The Wife,” my first response was that it is primarily a story that promotes patriarchy and traditional gender roles, something that I am not a fan of. (My friends call me a bit of a feminist). However, after relating the story to William Ellery Channing’s exclamation that “America shall take a place, by its authors, among the lights of the world (477),” I see Irving’s piece in a different light. While I do detest Irving’s comments on women, specifically how they are “the mere dependent and ornament of man” (526) and “helpless and beloved beings” (526), his story reflects the nationalistic values and spirit of the period, such as joy in the face of instability and vital strength through support and unity. America was building itself basically from the ground up when Irving’s story was written in 1819. Establishing a stable and renowned nation was important to the American people after the Revolutionary War, as was creating a unique identity separate from the many nations from which its citizens had come, especially from Britain. “The Wife” reflects not only America’s values of a patriarchal society, but it is also a message to the world, clearly stating that though they are in a time of instability as a nation, the joys and vitality that freedom has brought are an “unutterable felicity” (530). This is particularly illustrated in Irving’s story by his description of his friend’s wife after she had spent her first day in economic adversity: “She was in a pretty rural dress of white; a few wild flowers were twisted in her fine hair…her whole countenance beamed with smiles—I had never seen her look so lovely” (530). The wife’s purity (symbolized by her white dress), vitality, and jubilant embrace of the simple delights of her circumstances are all direct reflections on America’s attitude. “The Wife” is certainly a “manifestation of a nation’s intellect” (477) and profoundly answers Channing’s call by establishing a basis for American literature and professing the heart of America through the written word to the world.